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3. Kurniawati

English Textbook Analysis for Governmental Studies From Students’ Responses

Layla Kurniawati1*, Waiphot Kulachai2

Lectuter of English Education (Institut Pemerintahan Dalam Negeri, Indonesia)1*

Associate Professor (Suan Sunanda Rajabath University, Thailand)2

Article Information		ABSTRACT
Received: August 10, 2024 Revised: November 13, 2024 Accepted: November 15, 2024 Published: December 02, 2024		The different English materials among the IPDN lecturers made English materials do not have standards. Therefore, it initiates the English lecturers to create English textbooks. This research aims to know the use of the English textbook from the student’s perspective. This study used a descriptive qualitative method with a technique for collecting data via questionnaires which are distributed to 202 students via Google Forms. The interviews are also used to know the students’ responses using the textbook. There are some findings: 1). Most of the respondents agree the materials in the form of reading text and focus on Government science; 2). 83,4% (168) agree with governmental topics, 16,6% (34) students disagree; 3) Tasks and activities provide opportunities to improve reading comprehension in English as well as other English language proficiency and government science; 4). Tasks and activities are coherent; 5). There are some strategies for learning English reading, such as Guessing in the form of schematic Theory and Collaboration for learning English together among the students in their dormitory
Keywords
Governmental studies; students’ responses; textbook analysis
Correspondence
E-mail: laylakurniawati@ipdn.ac.id

1. INTRODUCTION

Institut Pemerintahan Dalam Negeri is a higher boarding school that imparts knowledge of government for the cadre of government administrators who will be placed throughout Indonesia. IPDN is the biggest boarding school for a higher level of education. The students come from all Indonesian areas. English lesson is also given at IPDN, as part of the Curriculum at IPDN.

With numerous printed resources for teaching English as a Foreign Language (TEFL) available on the bookstores, selecting a suitable English textbook can be challenging. It must possess the expertise and judgment to select English textbooks and supplementary resources. The number of books being issued in English language instruction (ELT) is steadily increasing, it is easy to get totally overwhelmed and perplexed by their sheer variety and the contradicting claims that they make (Cunninsworth, 1995).

According to Harmer (1991) and Shahid et al (2021), one of the most important components of classroom instruction is the textbook. An adequately prepared textbook is more than just a collection of possible lesson plans. Because they offer a practical means of giving a learning program structure, textbooks continue to thrive. Good textbooks typically offer a logical progression of linguistic components together with dynamic and engaging content. Furthermore, they outline exactly what has to be learned and, in certain situations, provide a summary of the material covered so that students can review the grammatical and functional concepts they have been focusing on. Likewise, Richards also contends that textbooks serve as a valuable resource for educators and students alike, offering guidance that can improve instruction and learning.

IPDN does not yet have raw materials through modules or textbooks in English language teaching. This is a problem during the COVID-19 pandemic. At the same time, the Rector’s decree number 423.1/403/Y.2020 instructs the online teaching-learning process at IPDN. In line with the policy of online learning, it is necessary to prepare teaching materials that can be used by students at IPDN. Meanwhile, in the implementation of English language teaching, there aren’t similar English materials in the lectures. They teach based on their own preferences without following the IPDN general outline of Learning English. Based on the teaching control card, the teaching process is still emphasized on explanations related to formulas through grammar, vocabulary, and various theoretical theories.

The control card contains some information such as the name of lectures, time allocation for teaching, the topic of learning material, and the attendance of both students and lecturers in one semester. The control card can be used to see what teaching materials are given by the lecturers in one semester. Based on the observations and control card, the tendencies of English teaching are focused on teaching grammar, vocabulary, and translation.

Learning Materials

Learning materials are described as information and knowledge that are provided in a range of media and formats and that aid in the accomplishment of the desired learning goals (Mehisto, 2012). Educational resources comply with the goals and specifications of a local, state, or federal curriculum. In presenting the learning material in the class, teachers must have methods, in relation to what teachers "do" in the classroom. The few methods do not in some way rely on the use of materials to supplement and improve them. Without books, images, and maps, language classes wouldn’t be the same. Realia, charts, and audio-visuals. Supporting resources are widely available for all levels and purposes, and they contribute significantly to the richness of language training (Brown, 1994)

In terms of the content and context of language learning material, some definitions are as follows: Materials are considered a crucial part of teaching and learning and are frequently conceived of as a means to modify the nature of classroom interaction and language use (Richards & Rodgers, 1986 in Richards, 1998). According to Nunan (1991), materials—whether created by teachers or through commercial development—are a crucial component of the course of study and its most concrete feature.

In another way, the resources provide assistance to educators considering the degree of coverage and the level of focus required by specific pedagogical objectives. Richard (2001); Anderson and Pesola (1988); Wright in Nunan (1991). Additionally, they say that resources might act as a kind of teacher preparation because they offer models for lesson planning and delivery as well as useful formats. Resources can be used to clarify the objectives of the curriculum as well as the roles that students and teachers play in the teaching process.

Richard (2001:251); Anderson and Pesola (1988); Wright in Nunan 1991). furthermore emphasize that the majority of language programs rely heavily on instructional materials. The instructional resources are typically the foundation for a large portion of the language input that students receive and the language practice that takes place in the classroom, no matter if the instructor uses a textbook, materials created by the institution, or their own materials. In order to establish the tangible context that is so important for meaningful communication, the materials should have meanings. A large range of items and materials, as many of which are representative of the target culture as feasible, must be provided for foreign language learners.

One of the main distinctions in teaching adult learners is the necessity for a diverse choice of materials. Adult learners frequently place a strong emphasis on written communication and assignments from the outset of their education. The instructions in English textbooks serve as a form of instructional content, representing the tasks and activities. Through a variety of forms of support, the Activities get students ready for the verbal and cognitive demands of a task. Similar to traditional exercises, activities center on the guided instruction and acquisition of a particular language, skill, or information. Their primary goal is to practice language, which includes learning new vocabulary, grammar, and language functions as well as sharpening language-related skills with a focus on detail listening (Brewster, 2003).

Additionally, she claims that activities emphasize form and meaning, practice a specific collection of language items, subskills, or task processes, and typically involve a limited amount of learner control and a small set of cognitive operations. They help students get ready for more autonomous work on tasks.

On the other hand, according to Brown (1994), a task is any structural language learning endeavor that has a stated goal, relevant content, a defined working method, and a range of outcomes for the participants. According to this definition, a task consists of four fundamental components: an objective, content, technique, and consequences. Brewster (2003) also makes the case that tasks, like final language outcomes, arise after students have studied a specific set of languages and assist in providing a context that guarantees learning has occurred.

Textbook Analysis

Cunningsworth (1995) asserts that choosing coursebooks might involve important strategic choices, such as deciding on the core course for a five-year teaching program. A significant amount of money will be invested over many years, but even more crucially, a large number of students’ learning experiences and eventual level of English proficiency will be impacted, perhaps having an impact on their future employment. Cunningsworth also explains how textbooks serve as a resource for accomplishing predetermined goals and objectives related to the needs of learners.

The textbook serves a number of purposes in English Language Teaching (ELT), including a) providing written and spoken presentation material; b) providing activities for communicative practice and learner practice; c) serving as a reference for learners on grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation, and other topics; d) providing ideas and stimulation for language activities in the classroom; e) acting as a syllabus; f) providing as a resource for independent learning or self-access work; and g) supplying support for novice teachers who are still developing their confidence.

In relation to the concept of textbook analysis, the researchers tried to break down the definition of analysis according to Cunningsworth (1995) means more or less neutral, seeking information in a range of categories, and providing the necessary data for the second stage of the process. This is the interpretation of the data obtained.

Although not all English lecturers at IPDN utilize the English textbook, efforts have been made to establish similar standards for English teaching materials across the institution. In light of this, the researchers are interested in examining students’ responses to the use of the textbook in their English learning process over one semester. Specifically, this study aims to explore student responses to the textbook Advanced Reading English for Specific Purposes: Role of Government in Indonesia and its role in their learning activities at IPDN. The research problem is formulated as follows: "How do students respond to the use of the English textbook, Advanced Reading English for Specific Purposes: Role of Government in Indonesia, in their learning activities at IPDN?" Through this investigation, the researchers aim to uncover the textbook’s usability and effectiveness from the student’s perspective. The findings are expected to inform the evaluation and development of teaching materials, particularly in the form of textbooks, to enhance the quality of English instruction at IPDN.

2. RESEARCH METHOD

This research uses a descriptive qualitative approach. The researchers describe the responses of IPDN students who use the English textbook in their teaching-learning process. The researchers made questions about the textbook analysis adopted from Jack Richard’s evaluation of the English textbook (2001). The checklist for evaluation and selection of course book the researchers created as the form of questions that must be filled out by the respondents through the Google Forms.

The format in the Google Form is: [yes/no] questions or [agree/not agree] answers. There are spaces for giving the students’ responses related to their reasoning for their answers. Researchers want to reveal how students think about textbooks used in English learning activities in terms of content and tasks.

The other techniques for data collection are observation, documents, and interviews. The researchers collected all the results of the data collection, and then they categorized all the results and analyzing based on the research problems.

3. FINDING AND DISCUSSION

1. Findings

Here’s a general overview of students’ backgrounds before we look at their responses related to the use of English textbooks.

Figure 1
Figure of General Overview of Students’ Backgrounds

The majority of IPDN students (77.2%) of the total respondents have studied English for more than 7 years.

Figure 2
Figure of Active and Passivity of Students in English

There are 202 students as respondents, and approximately 83.9 percent of students stated that they were not active English speakers, and 18.1 percent said they were active speakers. Based on the data, there are 120 (59,1%) students had never taken an English course, and 82 students (40,9%) had never taken an English course. The ability of English belongs to 120 students who obtained formal education from primary to higher level education.

Based on the Google Forms results, the obstacles encountered by IPDN students in learning English are: a). The problems of English grammar; b). The problems of English vocabulary; c). The problems of English pronunciation; d). the problems of English skills (speaking, writing, and listening); e). English passive speaker.

With the above various problems of learning English at IPDN, it is hoped that similar material among lecturers in utilizing and using English textbooks can be used for solving the English teaching-learning problems. As additional information, the English textbooks are designed based on the recommendations of the dissertation results from one of the teaching teams of English subjects. The tasks and activities are structured to develop all four English skills. The given theme for each chapter contains various things related to government as core knowledge of IPDN.

Tasks and activities in textbooks are expected to help students overcome various problems in learning English. The content material in the textbook is expected to be a guide for students on what they will learn. The textbook also provides learning activities that are not only carried out in the classroom but can be done outside the classroom (e.g. in the dormitory) online or offline.

Therefore researchers need to conduct a study of students’ responses to English textbooks through Google Forms and interviews. The questions are given in relation to the usability of the textbook by the students in one semester. There are some responses from students related to English textbooks. The questionnaire results of 202 IPDN students who take English lesson with the textbook, Advanced Reading English For Specific Purpose: The Role Of Government in Indonesia can be seen in the description such as 99% of students agree with the existing reading material, which presents simple material to complex material and tasks that are still relevant to the provided material. They also agree with dominated materials of reading in each chapter with various additional assignments and tasks related to the four existing English skills.

Most of the students agree with the reading materials in the textbook, and the reasons related to their agreement are: the book presents many reading texts that focus a lot on government science (ARN). The English textbook is also very helpful and provides learning opportunities for ARN in learning English from simple to complex topics. Similarly to NP whose similar reasons as ARN, he states that the reading materials are also presented gradually from easy material to more difficult material.

2. Discussion

Based on the student’s responses, they state that mostly the material in the form of English reading text is suitable for English textbooks. It is also stated by An (2011) in Zao & Zu (2012) that one of the key competencies in learning English, according to him, is reading. It is recognized that language comprehension—a crucial component of communication between input and output—exists even if it is invisible to us.

In line with the reading text in the textbook, the same statement was given by A, who argued that the reading material in the textbook contains a number of reading which are very helpful for him in learning the English language. The existing reading material will be the initial information for him to answer various follow-up questions and tasks in the textbook (JMA.10). The existing reading text also provides questions that the answers will be answered by reading the text first. The reading material will encourage the students to master their English skills. Mastering a language without reading is challenging. It is defined by (Bright & McGregor in Mart 2012):

Understanding is best achieved via reading. Sentences and textual structures can be understood by a proficient reader. Additionally, reading is "the most enjoyable way for mastering the language" since it increases the possibility that students will come across memorable, pointed, and forceful words. Reading seems to be a crucial component in acquiring a language.

The existing reading material also motivates students to find out more information related to government knowledge (DCC.12); for example, material related to elections in the book encourages DCC to study it as a whole because DCC wants to know more deeply about the election context in Indonesia. (MU.13) also states that other materials related to the government can be learned in this English lesson (MU.13). The Materials in each chapter have a correlation with other chapters (I. 20). This statement is reinforced by the opinion of BH.89, who states that the continuity of the existing material provides opportunities for students to learn and develop their English knowledge such as vocabulary, grammar, structure, and writing (MAA.61).

Based on the above various statements stated by respondents show that English materials that are related to government science and also as core knowledge of IPDN students can be used as one of the strategies for the English language teaching approach. The strategy is called Content-Based Instruction. This will give students more opportunities to be able to integrate with learning according to the context of the knowledge that they are learning. It will support their ease in learning the English material itself and also provide opportunities for students to understand their knowledge through English lessons. This is in line with the opinions of Krashen, Swain, and Cummins. (1982) in (Grabe & Stoller, 1997):

The early justification for the development of CBI in second language environments came from the comprehensible input hypothesis. The successful outcomes of several L2 CBI programs have validated his claim that language is best acquired incidentally through wide exposure for understanding the second language input. This claim has also justified the usage of CBI.

Based on the above data, most students gave an affirmative response regarding the use of English textbooks that focus on reading on their learning activities in class with various arguments, such as: a). Assisting students in learning English from simple contexts to more complex materials; b). Help them to understand the content of the text to answer every task in the book; c). Motivate students to deepen the material not only in English but also the government knowledge; d). There is a correlation between the material and the tasks in each chapter of the book; e). Students have the opportunity to learn many things related to English language skills, such as vocabulary and grammar, encouraging students to learn more about government science.

The existing material also gives challenges for students to explore the content of the material, which focuses on government topics (Z.104). The topic of government is felt to be able to meet their needs for government science, especially as new students who are starting to study government science (MR.109). In other words, While studying the material, pupils are taught quite a bit of language. These extraneous words should be understandable, associated with what they have already learned, and pertinent to their needs—all essential elements of a successful language acquisition experience (Grabe & Stoller).

Some students agree with the reading material that is specific and focused on government science (Muh Ridho). The way of presentation of tasks and activities in the textbooks varies from short, simple, easy-to-understand of reading text to Long readings that need deeper thinking (V.122). So it can be said that the presentation of reading texts will provide many opportunities for students in the development of their other skills in learning English, as Mart (2012) argues, that:

Reading a lot will increase your vocabulary and help you become more proficient at expressing yourself. One of the key elements that will affect proficiency in speaking is comprehension of vocabulary. Learners are exposed to a greater variety of language and circumstances through reading. Learning through reading fosters improved grammatical proficiency. Learners acquire more advanced speaking abilities as their reading comprehension increases.

With regard to the content of the textbook which presents reading material and offers a variety of reading topics of government. Almost all students say that the topics in the book contain material that is relevant to the students’ background knowledge. Various statements such as (MJP.3) stated the material presented in the book is suitable with the knowledge that he learns at IPDN, namely government science. Likewise (DCCM.12) said that the material is appropriate, and most of the material is related to the science of government. RLR.45 also mentions that the book offers topics e.g. Indonesian History and the government that has been running in Indonesia. Brinton, Snow, and Wesche (1989) on (Grabe & Stoller, 1997)

A content-based technique involves tailoring language class activities to the topics being taught, with the goal of encouraging students to use the foreign language to think and learn. Teaching each of the basic language abilities combined is a logical fit for such an approach. For instance, it uses real reading materials that demand that students not only comprehend the material but also analyze, interpret, and evaluate it. It offers a platform where students can react verbally to lectures and reading materials. It acknowledges that reading and listening come before academic writing; therefore, in order to prepare for writing, students must integrate information and ideas from a variety of sources. Students are exposed to study skills in this method. This method prepares pupils for the variety of academic difficulties that they will face by teaching them study techniques and a range of linguistic abilities.

The same statements stated by (AJ.56) and AFS that the content of the materials in this book presents not only English but also government science. It is very helpful in supporting the students in learning government science as they are studying at IPDN. The selection of reading topics that focus on government science at least provides opportunities for students in addition to learning English as well as learning government science. It is in line with the argument belonging to Grabe & Stoller, 1997):

Students learn material in spite of being exposed to an enormous quantity of language in content-based settings. These stray phrases should be understandable, connected to what they have already learned, and pertinent to their needs—all crucial components of a good language lesson. In other words, since most classes entail imparting some sort of topic knowledge, language learning also happens—at least accidentally—in such classrooms. This kind of learning environment makes second language acquisition consistent with the majority of other academic learning situations. In content-based classrooms, learners participate in suitable language-dependent activities while teachers and students study engaging content. This approach mirrors the learning that students do in other topic-area classes. As a consequence, the resulting of learning foreign language tasks are not made-up or pointless.

In addition to the statements given by the respondents, the table of contents in the textbook also offers the topic of government.

Table 1
Table of Contents of the Textbook

Chapter	Content
Chapter 1	Historical Background of Indonesia
Chapter 2	Highlight of Indonesia (I)
Chapter 3	Highlight of Indonesia (II)
Chapter 4	History of Pancasila
Chapter 5	Pancasila
Chapter 6	The Constitution of Indonesia
Chapter 7	The Transition to Democracy in Indonesia: Some Outstanding Problems
Chapter 8	The Four Phases of the Democratization Process
Chapter 9	History of Election in Indonesia
Chapter 10	Election in Indonesia 2014

The provided material is related to the science that students learn, namely government science. It is considered more meaningful. Considering that in English learning, students are not just learning to improve English skills, but also learning government content. This is in line with that stated by (Brinton, Snow, and Wesche 1989; Mohan 1986) in Richards (2001)

The benefits of content-based syllabus courses are as follows: a) content based syllabus make language more understandable; b) they provide the best foundation for teaching the skill areas; c) they cater to the needs of the students; d) they inspire learning; e) they enable the integration of the four skills and the use of authentic materials.

Meanwhile, when there was a question about their approval of the theme of the textbook that focused only on the science of government, 34 did not agree, and 168 students agreed. The following are the responses that approximately 16.6% of students do not agree their teaching material focuses on government science. As prospective cadres of civil servants, they do not only understand government science, but also they must master other knowledge (AFS.169, FDL.180). Therefore it will add their knowledge broader (FE.9; SAM.43). There are many other references that can be used, and essentially, learning English itself has a universal nature (FR.58). Essentially, government science will be related to other sciences (FKS.74) and with material which focus only on government will make them monotonous and bored in learning English (MFI.2).

Various responses related to their agreement with a material focus on government science are: they learn government science while learning English they also learn government science indirectly it will strengthen their understanding knowledge of government science (FFM.69). After graduating from IPDN, they will be civil servants who have to know a lot about government in other languages, especially English (AAS.113). He also adds that by learning Englis,h they can also add and improve their knowledge of government indirectly or, in other words, kill two birds with one stone. It is normal and understandable, considering that the selection of topics can be developed by each lecturer in the class. Minimally there is provided standard material in learning English activities in the classroom. This is like the statement given by Coelho in Kesller (1992) related to the choice of theme.

The content selected for the ESL program should draw on the students’ own experiences, the orientation information they need about their new country and the school system, and the demands of other curriculum areas for background information and experiences that students brought up and educated in other countries and cultures may not have. The ESL program that explores a range of topic, social studies, environmental science, the world of work, government and politics, current issues, literature- provides an appropriate variety of contexts for the acquisition of language for application across the curriculum

The presented material in the book is also a guide for lecturers in presenting the existing material. In addition, the tasks and activities in the book give some opportunities for pupils to improve their English competence directly, e.g. when the students do group assignments, especially on the Topic for class discussion, the students have the opportunity to practice their English directly through discussions on group assignments, It indirectly provides pupils with the opportunity to speak English more fluently (MFI.2).

The existing reading material also makes them increase their vocabulary in English (NPA.18). As well as providing opportunities for them in the development of pronunciation (IPD.20) and fluency in speaking English (DPP.21). The material provided in textbooks with an emphasis on text comprehension will serve as a link in the development of dynamic integrated skill approaches to language instruction. It highlights how different skills work together. The most effective way to develop reading skills is to combine them with speaking, writing, and listening (Brown, 1994:283). The instructions in each task and activity will provide opportunities for reading material to be the material that will be most successfully attained by utilizing the connections between abilities, particularly the reading-writing link.

Various statements given by respondents show that the book presents various opportunities for skill development – skills in English. The theme is also suitable for the student’s core knowledge, so it will give more opportunities for students to develop English skills. According to Mart (2012)

Extensive reading will help you to develop your ability to express ideas, whilst also enlarging the size of vocabulary. Vocabulary knowledge is one of the crucial factors that will influence fluency in speaking. Reading introduces learners to a wider body of language and contexts. Reading helps learners build up better grammar skills. As learners develop stronger reading skills, they develop more sophisticated speaking skills.

The material in the textbook will become more meaningful when it is combined with the assignments that are given by the lecturers with some portfolio in the form of project-based learning. It can be done in groups, and the project results can be uploaded in Google Classroom or other media. It is in line with what Cunningsworth (1995,7) stated that the book text can be a source of concepts and inspiration for lessons, as well as a supply of exercises for students to practice speaking and interacting with others.

The reading text also gives the opportunity for students to develop their English Vocabulary, especially vocabulary in government science. This is in line with the student’s responses that while reading English textbooks, sometimes he met the difficult English vocabulary in the text, and they made an effort to confirm by looking up the definitions of the challenging terms in the dictionary, it makes him more active, and indirectly he had new English vocabularies (SH.97). The same strategy is carried out by SFF.83, he said this textbook has the rarely English vocabulary that make him difficult to get the meaning. Therefore, it motivates him to find the meaning through a dictionary or guessing. The other statement is stated by (AYF.122). He said there are some tasks and activities related to the reading text. He tried to understand the tasks and look up the difficult words in the dictionary, and he also guessed the meaning or he discussed with his colleagues to do the tasks in the textbook.

They also said mostly 80 percent of the textbook contains reading text for each chapter with various types of tasks and activities. The assignments provided some English skills, such as speaking, writing, structure, and vocabulary. This textbook gave the opportunity for YFI.147 to do the assignments with a lot of governmental English vocabulary, which was rarely used before. So it motivated YFI.147 to do the tasks in the textbooks with his friends. He believed that by doing the tasks and activities in the textbook seriously, he would be able to get the good result in English ability. In particular he will know governmental English better than before. This is in line with Cunningswort (1995), who said that Coursebooks can assist in giving students the tools they need to deal with the foreign words they will undoubtedly encounter. Additionally, they can help pupils create their own methods for acquiring language. So it can be said that the various types of tasks in the textbooks will be A highly effective approach that can be built on raising awareness of vocabulary systems, supporting appropriate dictionary skills, and thinking critically about efficient teaching methods (Cunningswoth, 1995).

Without any consciousness, the students have some strategies for understanding the words and also the text, namely guessing strategy. Guessing becomes one common strategy when they don’t know its meaning of words or text. In other words, the students interpret the texts by combining their background knowledge of the text with context of the text itself by guessing. It is in line with the ideas belong to Rumelhart (1980) in (Zhao & Zhu, 2012), that.

The idea holds that comprehension requires people to combine what is presented in a book with what they already know. During this process, people’s prior and basis knowledge successfully support their cognitive functions. Each part of knowledge is arranged into units known as schema. It is effective in stimulating children’s interest in reading since it draws on personal experience, which also improves their comprehension of texts and helps them read more rapidly and accurately. They also assert that a very successful curriculum for improving students’ reading comprehension is provided by the Schema theory.

Another strategy that arises from the use of textbooks is collaboration. The emergence of collaboration arose among the students when they had to do the tasks, as they lived in the same dormitory. It is easy for them to do the tasks collaboratively. They divided the tasks, and each student had their own responsibilities, and they had to collect and discuss them together.

4. CONCLUSION

This analysis examines students’ responses to evaluate how the textbook supports the teaching and learning process at IPDN’s boarding school at the university level. The conclusions are as follows:

1. The book offers material that progresses from simple to complex, primarily in the form of reading texts.
2. Each chapter includes reading texts that focus on topics related to government science.
3. Among the students surveyed, 16.6% (thirty-four students) disagreed with the focus on government topics, while 83.4% (one hundred and sixty-eight students) agreed
4. The tasks and activities in the textbook provide opportunities for students to improve various English language skills, including vocabulary, grammar, speaking, and writing.
5. The material motivates students to deepen their understanding of government science.
6. Some coherence is present among the materials.
7. Students apply schema theory to understand the content of the readings, using techniques such as guessing.
8. Collaboration is a common strategy students use for completing tasks in their dormitories.

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